The Deep Sea Environment – search for resources
The Chronos Group has interests in deep sea exploration. Here we explore some of the environments our clients encounter in their search for sustainable resources.
The different types of sediment which cover the sea floor
There are two main types of sediment, terragenous and bioclastic and less widespread types of sediment from volcanic and hydrothermal vent activity. Sediments can also be classified as pelagic or deep sea sediments. If we look at terragenous sediments first, these are the result of erosion from continental rocks. The material eroded is deposited on the continental shelves by run off or other physical actions and advances the continental shelf seawards by deposition of sediments. Submarine fans may form e.g. the giant Ganges Fan and currents eventually move sediments off the continental shelf and into the abyssal plain. The ocean shifts the coarser material in turbidity currents and there are occasional sudden movements e.g. 1929 Grand Banks in North America turbidity event. Bioclastic sediments are the result of biological activity and include the dead remains of pelagic plants and animals that have sunk. Pelagic bioclastic sediments are also called oozes and may be composed of calcareous or silaceous materials.
Calcareous ooze is composed of chalky remains of foraminifera and pteropods, and forms the deep ocean red clays. The silaceous material is derived from shells of radiolarians and diatoms and found mainly in tropical and polar seas. The distribution of ooze reflects primary production taking place near the surface. The thickness of the sediments also reflects the age of the ocean crust with thickness increasing as we move away from mid ocean ridges for example. Volcanic ash from eruptions can also travel large distances and end by being deposited on the ocean floor, thus contributing to sediments. Finally around hydrothermal events we have unique sediments with metalliferous muds. It should also be noted that sediments on the abyssal plains are not completely static as currents, earthquakes and tectonic activity can move them.
Food availability in the deep sea and how animals cope with limited food supplies.
Basically food availability decreases with depth as does species diversity. The supply of food to the deep sea depends on primary production in the photic zone (except for hydrothermal vent areas). However, it has been estimated that just 2% of phytoplankton sink to the bottom as they are mainly consumed above or on the way down.
Since food is relatively scarce the marine organisms have a number of ways of coping. We can loosely categorize these as
1) Energy conservation adaptations e.g. slow movements, slow metabolisms, and some fish with relatively low muscle mass compared to fish in shallower seas.
2) Related to energy conservation some fish are ambush predators e.g. deep sea Angler fish.
3) Dwarfism and gigantism are methods of coping with food availability e.g. tiny nematode worms.
4) Physiological adaptations also include distended stomachs in some species to cope with the rare chances of feeding e,g, angler fish but even bivalves in the deep ocean have been found to have longer guts to take full advantage of food availability.
5) Related to this opportunistic feeding but perhaps in a class of its own we have the animals adapted to feed on dead whales. These are very important and provide many year’s food supply to an area of the ocean floor in one moment. 43 species have been found on one whale carcass e.g. sharks, hagfish, bone eating zombie worms, snails, limpets, clams and anaerobic bacteria. Since there are many similarities with organisms found round hydrothermal vents these carcasses may have acted as stepping stones from vent to vent.
6) Deposit feeders. Since the deep sea floor is dominated by loosely compacted biogenic ooze it is dominated by deposit feeders like the deep sea cucumber (Scotoplanes).
7) Vertical migration. Some fish move upwards to feed and have replaced swim bladders with fatty deposits in order to cope with the vast differences in pressure. This is just a brief cross section of the ways in which animals cope with limited food supplies.
Some of the adaptations to the deep sea.
We only have space to discuss some of the adaptations to the deep sea. Lets us select five main categories to discuss as follows: adaptations to pressure, temperature, food availability, lack of light, and reproduction. Animals adapt to pressure in a variety of ways e.g. sperm whales have lungs that can compress to 1% of their normal volume, angler fish have reduced skeletons and other fish have reduced muscle mass. Sea cucumbers have bodies largely composed of water and others have proteins and enzymes adapted to work at pressure. Other species have dispensed with shell formation below the carbonate compensation depth. In these ways we see that there are physiological and chemical adaptations to cope with increased pressure. Secondly we have a brief discussion of temperature. The deep sea is largely isothermal with very stable temperatures prevailing that need few adaptations.
Hydrothermal vents are an exception to this rule. As far as food availability is concerned we have discussed in section three above the adaptations animals use to cope ranging from predatory and scavenging behavior, opportunistic feeding on whale carcasses to vertical migration strategies. Lack of light perhaps creates some of the most interesting adaptations. Eyes of fish in the deep sea tend to be generally larger than their counterparts above, although below 2000 meters eyes again grow smaller or are absent. Eyes contain a higher density of rods in the retina or tubular eyes are common e.g. hatchet fish. Where eyes are useless in the total darkness other methods have developed to sense the environment. Lateral lines are well developed to sense vibrations and antennae may also be used e.g. in hairy angler fish.
Bioluminescence is another adaption with 60 to 70% of deep water animals possessing this ability. Organs called photophores, sometimes using bacteria as a light source are found in many fish e.g. lantern fish. Bioluminescence can be used as a lure for food or for defence. Finally we have adaptations in reproduction in the deep sea with eggs with large yolks to combat lack of food, long lived species with slow sexual maturity may also help in this area. The relative difficulty of finding isolated mates may also have led to high degrees of hermaphroditic behavior and the famous adaptation of the tiny parasitic male in angler fish. These are just some of the adaptations to the deep sea.
Kelp forests.
Kelps are large brown algae that form giant kelp forests where there is a floating surface canopy. Kelps beds are lower lying kelps and vertical zonation of kelps helps them to receive as much sunlight for photosynthesis as possible. There are for example understory species (e.g. Nereocystis) and canopy species. Different species of kelp also predominate in different parts of the world with Laminaria sp. dominating in the North Atlantic for example and Macrocystis kelp forests in the Southern Atlantic. Kelp forests are found throughout the world in the sublittoral zone up to 50 meters deep throughout the cold temperate regions of the Earth. Kelp forests are vital for biodiversity and possess a very high primary production with some species growing several centimeters per day. They support a very diverse ecosystem. The kelps are attached by holdfasts to the rock and even this provides a habitat for young mussels (Mytilus edulus) and starfish. Kelp supports a range of associated species ranging from polychaete worms, isopods, sea urchins and brittle stars to crabs and fish. Detritus from kelp helps support deposit feeders. Finally there are a range of other animals associated with kelp ranging from seabirds to otters. The well documented example from Nova Scotia of Sea otters keeping sea urchins in check on the kelp provides us with a good example of the complex interactions of life in the kelp forests.
Dr Simon Harding
www.chronosconsulting.com
About the Author
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Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429 $118 “This Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429 watch is a timepiece from the Swatch Irony collection and has a Stainless Steel case with a Stainless Steel dial and a Brown Leather strap. This Swatch watch, made for Mens features Quartz movement within its 38 mm. case and a scratch resistant Mineral face. The Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429 watch is water resistant up to 30 mt. / 100 ft. Dexclusive.com has unbelievable deals on Brand NEW Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429 watches and they include the Swatch manual and a Dexclusive Warranty.All of the products sold on Dexclusive.com are 100% authentic Including the Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429, it is first quality and ships in the original packaging with original parts. Dexclusive has been selling high fashion watches and sunglasses online since 2004. Dexclusive sells Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429 watches and thousands of other brand name designer products at discount prices. Whether you are shopping for yourself or looking for a great gift, Dexclusive.com provides you with an excellent selection of products including the Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429 watch at unbelievable sale prices.Dexclusive has a team of friendly customer service personnel available to assist you if you have any questions about the Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429 watch or any other model you see at Dexclusive.com. Please call our Toll Free Number 1-866-573-3953 or you can click on the Live Online Chat button and one of our agents will be happy to assist you with any questions or concerns you might have. Don’t forget to follow us on Twitter @dexclusive or become a fan on Facebook for the latest news and deals from Dexclusive.com.Swatch Irony Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel YCS429-YCS429SWA-YCS429″ |
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Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492 $183 “This Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492 watch is a timepiece from the Michael Kors collection and has a Stainless Steel case with a Stainless Steel dial and a Brown Plated Stainless Steel strap. This Michael Kors watch, made for womens features Quartz movement within its 38 mm. case and a scratch resistant Mineral face. The Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492 watch is water resistant up to 100 mt. / 330 ft. Dexclusive.com has unbelievable deals on Brand NEW Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492 watches and they include the Michael Kors manual and a Dexclusive Warranty.All of the products sold on Dexclusive.com are 100% authentic Including the Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492, it is first quality and ships in the original packaging with original parts. Dexclusive has been selling high fashion watches and sunglasses online since 2004. Dexclusive sells Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492 watches and thousands of other brand name designer products at discount prices. Whether you are shopping for yourself or looking for a great gift, Dexclusive.com provides you with an excellent selection of products including the Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492 watch at unbelievable sale prices.Dexclusive has a team of friendly customer service personnel available to assist you if you have any questions about the Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492 watch or any other model you see at Dexclusive.com. Please call our Toll Free Number 1-866-573-3953 or you can click on the Live Online Chat button and one of our agents will be happy to assist you with any questions or concerns you might have. Don’t forget to follow us on Twitter @dexclusive or become a fan on Facebook for the latest news and deals from Dexclusive.com.Michael Kors Chrono Quartz Stainless Steel MK5492-MK5492MKS-MK5492″ |
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Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS 392HSDG6B6 $1799 “This Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS watch is a timepiece from the Frederique Constant Healey collection and has a Stainless Steel case with a Silver dial and a Brown Leather strap. This Frederique Constant watch, made for Men features Automatic movement within its 43 mm. case and a scratch resistant Scratch Resistant Sapphire face. The Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS watch is water resistant up to 60 mt. / 200 ft. Dexclusive.com has unbelievable deals on Brand NEW Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS watches and they include the Frederique Constant manual and a Dexclusive Warranty.All of the products sold on Dexclusive.com are 100% authentic Including the Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS, it is first quality and ships in the original packaging with original parts. Dexclusive has been selling high fashion watches and sunglasses online since 2004. Dexclusive sells Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS watches and thousands of other brand name designer products at discount prices. Whether you are shopping for yourself or looking for a great gift, Dexclusive.com provides you with an excellent selection of products including the Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS watch at unbelievable sale prices.Dexclusive has a team of friendly customer service personnel available to assist you if you have any questions about the Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS watch or any other model you see at Dexclusive.com. Please call our Toll Free Number 1-866-573-3953 or you can click on the Live Online Chat button and one of our agents will be happy to assist you with any questions or concerns you might have. Don’t forget to follow us on Twitter @dexclusive or become a fan on Facebook for the latest news and deals from Dexclusive.com.Frederique Constant Healey Chrono Auto SS-FRC-392HSDG6B6FRC-392HSDG6B6″ |
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Timex Expedition Mens Chrono Alarm Timer Green/Black/Brown $36.95 TIMEX EXPEDITION MENS CHRONO ALARM TIMER GREEN/BLACK/BROWNTimex Expedition is returning to its roots with Trail Series, a collection of casual analog and accurate digital compass watches. Capturing key style elements from the best selling Expedition watches over the past ten years. The result is a c |
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Citizen Eco Drive Chrono – Brown Face – Rotating Bezel – Brown Leather – Date $206.25 Brown dials are a big trend in watches and this Citizen Chrono has a rich brown face complemented by a Stainless Steel Case Brown Face 1 Second Chronograph Measures up to 60 Minutes 12/24 Hour Time One-Way Rotating Elapsed-Time Bezel Tachymeter Date Window at the 4 o’clock position Mineral Glass Crystal is scratch resistant Brown Leather Strap Water Resistant to 100 Meters (330 Feet) 42mm Case Width |
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Nixon 51 30 Chrono Leather Men s Analog Watch Silver Brown $359.95 Nixon 51 30 Chrono Leather Men s Analog Watch Silver Brown Nixon s new Tigerseye 51 30 Chrono is sure to turn heads. This is one of the largest watches that Nixon offers with a face that is over 50mm across this watch has a heavy sturdy feel to it. Features: * 6 hand Japanese quartz movement with second sub dial chrono and date * 51.25mm wide case custom 300 meter stainless steel with hardened mineral crystal external rotating bezel with countdown timer and screw crown at 9 O clock position * Imported leather band with custom stainless steel buckle * 25mm wide band |
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Optical Dial Chrono Watch $275 Dark brown stainless steel with a satin finish exudes casual elegance and masculine sophistication. An optical dial with gunmetal details is encased in an octagonal bezel with gunmetal colored screws. Water resistant 10 ATM. Signature box included. |
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Gucci Men’s YA101341 G-Chrono Brown PVD Brown Guilloche Dial Watch $1850 A business-class watch with plenty of style, the Gucci Men’s G-Chrono Brown PVD Brown Guilloche Dial Watch is ready to accompany you to your next board meeting or formal evening on the town. This chronograph features a brown PVD stainless steel case, crown, and selector buttons, as well as a stainless steel “G” logo bezel. Featured on this watch’s brown dial are luminous hands and baton hour markers. Two subdials sit at the six and ten o’clock positions, and an antireflective, scratch-resistant sapphire crystal protects the entire dial. Other features include water-resistance to 99 feet (30 meters), precise Swiss quartz movement, and a black PVD stainless steel band that closes with a push-button deployment clasp.The Gucci G-Chrono CollectionThe G-Chrono Collection offers a unique interpretation of excess. The oversized 44mm case and extra-large dial combined with overstated push buttons are a powerful statement of personality. The subtle details of the case quietly reveal its boldness. Underscoring the unconventional spirit of this watch, its black version features the bottom subdial marked by two axes only, while the top one stands out against the dark background with its white indexes. |
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Timex Expedition Mens Chrono Alarm Timer Green / Black / Brown Watch $53.65 Timex Expedition is returning to its roots with Trail Series a collection of casual analog and accurate digital compass watches. Capturing key style elements from the best selling Expedition watches over the past ten years. The result is a collection of bold rugged design combined with lightweight yet durable materials and easytouse technology.. INDIGLO NightLight with NIGHTMODE . 100Hour Chronograph with Lap and Split Times . 24Hour Countdown Timer . 99Lap Counter . Three Daily Weekly Weekday or Weekend Alarms with 5Minute Backup . Two Time Zone Settings . Forward or backward setting. Olive green/black resin case. Brown/black nylon/ leather strap. Product : TIMEX EXPEDITION MENS CHRONO ALARM TIMER GREEN/BLACK/BROWN. Manufacturer : TIMEX CORPORATION. Manufacturer Part No : T48042. UPC : 048148480421 |
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Christian Audigier ETE-124 Sprint Chrono Watch – Brown $79.99 Christian Audigier Sprint Watch is perfect for the romantic-at-heart. It includes a Brown Rubber Bracelet with a Stainless Steel case which compliments the Black dial. Our ETE-1234 Christian Audigier Mens wristwatch also comes with a 1 Year warranty book |
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BULOVA CHRONO BLK DIAL $225 Stainless steel case with a black leather bracelet with contrast stiching Fixed stainless steel bezel Brown dial with luminous silver tone hands and Arabic numeral hour markers Minute markers around the outer rim GMT scale Date display between the 4 and 5 oclock positions Chronograph three sub dials displaying 60 seconds 60 minutes and 24 hours Japanese quartz movement Scratch resistant mineral crystal Fluted steel crown Screw down case back Case diameter 45 mm Case thickness 12 mm Tang clasp Water resistant at 50 meters / 165 feet |
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Wenger Men’s 77004 AeroGraph Chrono Brown Leather Strap Watch $425 The Men’s AeroGraph Chrono Watch weds fine craftsmanship, practicality, and style in a single striking package. It also bears a pedigree: Swiss company Wenger was one of the first manufacturers of the Swiss army knife in 1908, and it applies the same exacting engineering standards to its products today. The sturdy stainless steel case, screw-on case back, and durable mineral crystal all protect the watch against the elements. Its black dial boasts easy-to-read Arabic numerals in white, as well as three chronograph subdials and a date window. The watch uses precise Swiss quartz movement and is water resistant to 330 feet (100 meters). |